Indigenous people around the world have diverse cultural beliefs about gender identity and expression that are often linked to their historical experiences of colonization. Colonialism has shaped the way indigenous peoples view themselves and each other, resulting in a loss of traditional knowledge and practices related to gender diversity. European colonizers imposed rigid binary concepts of male/female, masculine/feminine, heterosexual/homosexual, and transgender on indigenous societies that were previously much more fluid and inclusive of nonbinary genders. This paper will explore how colonialism has impacted indigenous understandings of gender identity and expression, focusing specifically on three case studies: Inuit, Maori, and Aboriginal Australians. The paper concludes by arguing for greater recognition and respect for indigenous gender identities as essential components of decolonial resistance movements.
Inuit
The Inuit people of Arctic Canada and Greenland have historically had flexible understandings of gender roles, where men could take on tasks typically associated with women and vice versa. Traditionally, there was no concept of "male" or "female," but instead individuals were identified by their physical characteristics, such as strength or skill at hunting.
After contact with Europeans, Inuit were pressured to adopt Western ideas of gender, leading to a decrease in traditional skills and knowledge and an increase in social problems like alcohol abuse and violence.
One study found that among the Inuit, the introduction of firearms led to increased hunting pressure, which forced women to take on traditionally male activities like sewing and skinning animals, while men became less active in household chores. This shift towards a gender binary resulted in a loss of cultural practices and increased stress on individuals who did not fit into these categories.
Maori
Colonization has erased many traditional understandings of gender diversity among the Maori people of Aotearoa/New Zealand. Pre-contact Maori society had diverse gender identities, including transgender people who lived as either men or women and performed both genders' roles. Colonizers imposed strict European norms on Maori, resulting in widespread rejection of nonbinary genders and sexualities. Today, transgender people are still marginalized and discriminated against, despite efforts to reclaim traditional gender identities through events like the TransFest conference. Many Maori also face challenges related to intergenerational trauma from colonialism, which can contribute to mental health issues like depression and substance use. These struggles highlight how colonialism has affected indigenous perceptions of gender and identity.
Aboriginal Australians
The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia have faced similar pressures due to European colonization. Traditionally, they recognized at least four genders: man, woman, "berdache" (a person with both male and female characteristics), and "tribal all-male."
Contact with Europeans led to an increase in violence and dispossession, which caused disruption to traditional social structures and roles. Some tribes were forced to adopt Christian values that saw homosexuality as immoral and punishable by law. This resulted in the imprisonment and humiliation of individuals who did not conform to Western binary gender norms. In addition, many indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families under assimilation policies, causing a loss of cultural knowledge and practices around gender diversity. While some indigenous groups are now working towards recognition and acceptance of gender diverse individuals, much work remains to be done to address the legacy of colonialism.
These case studies illustrate how colonialism has had far-reaching effects on indigenous conceptions of gender identity and expression. By recognizing and respecting traditional understandings of gender, we can better support marginalized communities and promote healing from historical trauma. As scholars such as Sara Ahmed argue, indigenous gender identities should be seen as essential components of decolonial resistance movements that challenge dominant power structures and restore balance to our world.
How might colonialism have influenced or erased indigenous conceptions of gender diversity?
The effects of colonialism on indigenous cultures are multifaceted and far-reaching. Colonialism often involves cultural domination, forced acculturation, and assimilation policies that can lead to the erasure of traditional values and belief systems, including those related to gender identity.